Mongwaiching's Family: History of Marma's

1. Introduction:

The Marma people are the second-largest ethnic community/ indigenous minority group in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts, primarily residing in the Bandarban, Khagrachari and Rangamati Hill Districts. Some Marmas live in Chittagong border area of CHT like Rangunia and Fatikchari as well as Some Marmas live in Bangladesh's coastal districts of Cox's Bazar and Patuakhali, while others live in State of Tripura, India and Myanmar. They are living both in the plain and hill areas. There are over 210,000 Marmas living in Bangladesh. Since the 16th century, the Marma have considered the Chittagong Hill Tracts their home, where they have established the Bohmong and Mong Circles (chiefdoms).

There has been a long-standing desire to learn about the history and culture of the Marma people, but this has not been possible due to the lack of written books or documents on the subject. When I studied history at the University of Chittagong, I felt terrible for knowing about the history of the Marma community. Because we can learn about the ancient civilizations of different nations and community about their social, cultural, economic and religious activities from different history books. But it was not possible to know about the ancient civilization of the Marma people as there was no written history book of the history of the Marma people. I completed BA Honors and Masters in History from Chittagong University in 2004, then wanted to study Marma history with a higher degree. It was no longer possible due to family financial difficulties. I have been involved with various NGOs, INGOs and UN agencies for almost 12 years. Today the corona virus suddenly came and the whole world came to a standstill, all the offices were closed and locked down. During these three months of lockdown, there has been an opportunity to conduct fact-finding research on the history of the Marmas by collecting data from accessible history books and online. I have tried to write the history of the Marma people by incorporating the knowledge and information gained from this online based research. It is difficult to write detailed research in a short time. If the history of the Marma people revealed in this study is of any use to anyone, it is the result of my three months of untiring work and hard work. Hopefully, those who are interested in learning about the Marma people or the Marma tribes will find this information very useful. If I have the opportunity to do research on the Marma community in the future, I will probably try to write more detailed data. This research work focusing on the historical, cultural, and social history of the Marma people in Bangladesh.

2. Marma and Mugh/Mogh Controversy:

There is considerable controversy over marma and mughs. Many call the Marma people Mughs/Moghs. The Portuguese used the word "Mugo" to refer to the Rakhine people, the Rakhine king, and the Rakhine language. "Mugo" and "Mugh" have the same meaning. Foley refers to the Rakhine people as Mughs or Magas in 1835. Medieval Arakanese Buddhists, especially those living east of the eastern border of Bengal, are widely known as "Mughs" and It is believed that the name was given to the people of Chittagong. Ahmed Sharif writes that "mugh" is a pouring word (blanket term) used to refer to Buddhists. The people of Chittagong generally use the name "mugh" to refer to the followers of the Buddha and the Buddhists living in Chittagong or Arakan or anywhere in the world. In fact, "Rakhine", "Marma", "Barua" etc. are confusing the unique identities of the people and everyone is being called by the name of Mugh. There is also an attempt to show them as separate groups by using names like "Jumia Mug", "Roang Mug", "Bhuiyan Mug", "Barua Mug" etc. But the origin of the word "Mugh" is unknown and the meaning is controversial. It is difficult to get an idea of the actual origin and meaning of this word as there are various assumptions and interpretations of this word. As a result, there has been little research on the etymology of the word mugh.

Domestic and foreign historians / writers have different views on the origin of the Mugh term. For example, D.G.E Hall thinks that the word Mugh originates from the word Mongol. Because the Arakanese have similarities in appearance and appearance with the Mongols. The definition of the word "mugh" in the Bengali dictionary is "mughs" are the inhabitants of Arakan or Burma. The term "mugh" comes from the Burmese word "Mong".

At one time, pirates on the coast of the Bay of Bengal were considered a “deadly nuisance” for their violence, cruelty, and barbarism. They were a group of Portuguese and Arakanese thugs who made a living by piracy in the 16th and 17th centuries. Since the word “Mugh” was used to refer to the Arakanese, Arakanese pirates were also known as "Mugh pirates". As a result, pirate and mugh became synonymous. The Mugh has become a disgusting, derogatory and derogatory term, being used as an insult in the 16th and 17th centuries, and the two words "mugh" and "muger mulluk" have become synonymous as oppressive and anarchic, respectively.

According to Tibetan sources, Muslim invaders destroyed Buddhist monasteries in Magadha and killed Buddhist monks. As a result, the Buddhists fled to Arakan and East Bengal as refugees. The Arakanese predecessors fled Magadha in the face of Muslim aggression and took refuge in Arakan. For this reason, their descendants became known as "Mughs" as their successors. The Rakhine state claims they came from the Buddhist land of Magadha. Phayre, who has long served as commissioner in Arakan, has come to the conclusion after extensive and in-depth research that the word Mugh does not exist in the vocabulary of the Mongoloid Arakanese and that they have never referred to themselves as mughs. In Arakan and in the whole of Burma there is no such thing as a Magh. There are a total of 135 officially recognized communities in Burma, of which there is no Magh.

So, it is clear from the above discussion that the term “Mugh” is an externally imposed (exonym) i.e. a name imposed by foreigners, not in any way self-imposed (ethnonym). That is to say, the word mugh is being used to refer to a people, it is by no means a name given to that people and there is no such word in their vocabulary.

3. The origin of the marma:

The word “Marma” originates from the Burmese word “Myanma”, which means “Burmese Nationals” and is pronounced as “Marma” by the people of the CHT. In other explanation the word “Marma” is derived from the Burmese word “Mraima” which means “Be Strong”. Hence, the predecessors of the Marma tribes were from Burma and as such, they came to be known as “Marma” or “Mraima”.

The Marmas were previously known as Moghs or Maghs for centuries because they were called Mogh/Magh by Bengalis for joining hands with Dutch and Portuguese pirates during their invasion in Chittagong. The Marmas considered these names to be pejorative, because it means "pirate”. Some Marmas in the Indian state of Tripura continue to self-identify as Marima, or as Moghs or Maghs, considering these terms to have derived from Magadha, the name of a historic Indian kingdom. Some researchers opine that the Buddhists of Arakan now known as Marmas and Maghs are the same group of people. The Marma people of CHT, however, do not like to identify themselves with Maghs. Maghs were originally pirates and that Marmas, far from being pirates, hated this occupation.

So, the term "Marma" is derived from "Myanmar." In the Marma and Arakanese languages, Myanmar is pronounced Mranma, not Myanma. In the Burmese language, the Marma are known as the Marama.The word 'Marma' originates from the Burmese word 'myanma'.

4. Marma Identity in CHT (Choitgong Tongma Marma Lumyo), Bangladesh:

Their ethnic designation “Marma” already clearly indicates they have a historical and geopolitical link and cultural closeness to Arakan and Burma/Myanmar, but the precise relationship between the tow remains to be fully investigated. The word “Marm” Like the word “Burma.” can be traced back to the old description “Mranma” which the Burmese used for themselves for centuries. The “Mage”/Mogh is another odd term for Marma mentioned in older sources. The term “Magh” is also believed to have derived from the ancient kingdom of Magadha, the kingdom where the Buddha lived and taught for more than four decades. However, there is no evidence to support such a claim.

There are two polemic versions of the ancestral history of the Marma of the CHT. The Bohmang version reveal that the forefathers of the Marma were Talain people of Pegu, while other source reveals that contemporary Marma are rather Arakanese descendants. The Pegu/Bago was once the center of commerce and the capital city of the Mon people. In the Pali Buddhist chronicles of Southeast Asia, the Pegu was formally known as Hanthwady and Ramannadesa, which later became a strong political center of Mons. The “Talain” is derogatory term, which in Mon language, means “bastard” or “downtrodden” and used by Burmese to refer to the Mons. Talain people of Pegu claimed by Bohmang family and the Marma of Bandarban as their ancestors were the prisoners brought to the CHT after the fall of Pegu 1799.

The popular belief among the Marmas is they originally came from Arakan from sixteenth century through the eighteenth century. Burmese history tells us that in the later part of the eighteenth century, the Burmese invaded the Arakanese ingdom, as a result of which two thirds of the population of Arakan migrated to the CHT. Burmese history further reveals that there were two waves of migration and relocation of the Arakanese-Marma about the same time one which settled in the Mong circle in the North (e.g. Khagrachri District) and other which moved to the Bohmang circle in the south (e.g. Bandarban district).

By 1869, the Marma were divided into rival groups, each group had their main chief locally regarded as Mong (raja) – the king who ironically appears more to be a representative of the Marma society than a leader. The Marma in the South of the Karnafulli River are headed by the Bohmang circle of Bandarban are called Ragrai-sa, those in North are under the Mong circle of Khagrachaari belong to the Palaing-sa. The Marma is also further divided and the terms Khyong-sa and Toung-sa are used to refer the people for those who live on the ridges of hills and those of in the riverside. The Marma men wear Longi and women wear thoboing (sheets of soft cotton/silk clotes). Other little-known Marma groups Longdu-sa, Fran-sa, Kyapyai-sa, Kodaing-sa, Weyoi-sa and Maroi-sa, Palai-sa, Khyong-sa and so forth are scattered in Rangamati.

Along with history, dress, manners, and cultural attributes that are typical to them, the Marma construct their ethnic identity through distinct language. Their names are similar to that of Arakanese and Burmese. The contemporary Marma communities are divided into eleven clan and groups living in different localities. Each group have their own regional dialect, but their dialects are connected to Arakanese vermacular and written in Burmese/Arakanese characters. Earlier in the Buddhist temples Arakanese language are taught to the Marma children, but it was discontinued since the 1970s. Today, most Marma can’t read and write their language. On this account, the Marma language, both written and spoken, is a great danger of being lost due to disuse and overuse of Bengali language. As a part of assimilation and homogenization of Bangla as national language. The Marma adopted Bangla as the only means of communication and method of education, putting the survival of their own language into danger.

Marma, also called Magh, or Mogh, people of the Chittagong Hills region of Bangladesh. The Marma numbered approximately 210,000 in the late 20th century. One group, the Jhumia Marma, have long settled in this southeastern region of Bengal; the other group, the Rakhaing Marma, are recent immigrants, having come from Arakan toward the end of the 16^th- 18th century, when their kingdom was conquered by the Burmese.

Most of the Marma came under Bengali influence, but in the south of the Chittagong Hills region, where their culture remains comparatively pure, the script and dress are Burmese and the language an Arakanese dialect. Elsewhere the Bengali dress and language prevail. The religion of the Arakanese-speaking Marma is animistic Buddhism. The people are divided into endogamous clans, and in modern times there were still strong traces of a political organization under clan chiefs. In the hills, shifting cultivation was still preferred to plow agriculture in modern times, but the villages, containing from 10 to 50 houses, were invariably built on the banks of streams. The houses were light structures on bamboo piles, and a relic of the communal house for men was sometimes found in the form of a roofed platform built at the end of the village street.

The Marma have their own distinctive heritages –identity, culture, religion, language and tradition. Since they made their first settlement in the eighteenth century, religion, ethnic identity, and language have been three major driving forces for their continuity and survival in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

The Marma dwell on high mountains and valleys of the CHT. The CHT consists of three hill district; Rangamati, Bandarban and Khagrachari sharing the international borders with Tripura and Muzuram state of India to the north and Myanmar to the East.

Karnafuli River (Kaisa Khyong) is the most largest and important river in the CHT. Origination from Lusai Hill of Mizoram in India. It runs 270 kilometers through CHT into the Bay of Bengal.

The Marma use these teaks, timbers, and bamboos for construction of their houses for exterior/interior manufacture and furniture of home as well as for commercial commodities. Various other ceciduous forest plants, fruit trees, and herbs are used by the Marma as food, medicine, and daily supplies.

Scaattered around and along this mountain range dwell a variety of ethnic minority and tribal groups. Historically, the CHT is the traditional home of eleven diverse ethnic groups of indigenous people. They are Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Tangchangya, Mru, Khumi, Lusai, Bowm, Chak, Khyang and Pankhua.

The Marma are the second largest ethnic group among these tribal communities who, shince their arrival in the CHT in sixteenth century, have constructed a dynamic cultural and political word of the Marma. The Marmaare radically different from the Bengali majority in language, physical appearance, religion, dress, culture, and social norms. The Marma share a closer ethno-cultural affinity to the Mongolic, Burmese. Myanmar and Combodia and belong to the Tibetu-Bumese Language family.

The Marma also differ from tribal groups in terms of language, cultures, and mannerism. The Marma consider themselves as one particular group of indigenous people who openly claim their identity as “Marma” and prefer to be perceived/recognized as such by other ethnic groups in the region. The Marma ethnic identity is the notion of a Marma culture as embodied in the language, religion, tradition and other cultural elements considered to be typical Marma trhough the phrase “Marma Lomyo” meaning the Marma nationality, they identify and construct their identity.

5. The original residence of the Marmas:

The Marmas of CHT were migrated from ancient Burma (Myanmar). The original and ancestral land of the Marma tribe was in the ancient Pegu city of Myanmar. The people of Pegu were known as “Talaing or Tai Luang” meaning “Greater Tai”, a branch of the Great Tai race, which, according to some historians, lived in southern and central China as early as 2200 BC.Arakan had firmly established its authority over Chittagong by the middle of the 16th century and retained its control for over a hundred years.

The Burmese do not seem to have settled in Arakan until the 10th century. The Arakan king, Tsu-La-Taing- Tsandra (951-957 A.D.), invaded Chittagong and defeated the local chieftain (probably a successor of Kanti Deva) in 953 A.D. in memory of this victory, he erected a monument with the words Tsit-ta-gung (there shall be no war) inscribed on it. It is said that this monument had been erected on the south of Kaunia Charra near Kumira. According some historians the modern name of Chittagong is derived from the inscription on this monument.

Anawrahta (1044-77 A.D), one of the greatest king of Pagan in Burma, visited the Indian land of Bengal in course of his expedition. Harvey thinks that he visited Chittagong and planted magical image of men there. According Burmese history, the Burmese king Alaungsitha (1112-62 A.D) who was a very powerful monarch visited "the Indian land of Bengal" -- probably Chittagong -- where he found the images set up by Anawrahta.

According to Rajmala the Tipperah king Mukut Manikya sent some presents to the Arakan king Mengdi in 1395. Presumably, Chittagong was at that time under the control of Arakan king. According to Harvey, Sithabin was on the throne of Arakan in 1395 and Myinhsxinggyi in 1397.

In 1406 the Arakan king Meng, Soamwan (Nara Meikhla, 1404-34) was dethrone by the army of Burmese king. He then fled to Gaur and sought the protection of the king there. The Arakan king resided at Gaur for 24 years. When army of Ibrahiim Sharqi, king of Jaunpur, invaded Gaur in 818 A.H., (1416 A.D), the refugee king, at the request of Nur Qutbul 'Alam, rendered Raja Ganesa assistance. At last in 1430 A.D. Jalaluddin Mohammad dispatched an army to restore the Arakanese king on the throne. Wli Khan the general, who was sent restore the Arakan king, betrayed his trust. He came to terms with usurper (Shua Mangji) and took possession of Chittagong for himself. Nara Meikhla escaped to Gaur. The Sultan sent a second army who restored the king on the throne after killing Wali Khan. The Arakan king became a tributary to the Sultan of Bengal and undertook to assume a Muslim name and strike coins with Kalima. An increase Bengali Muslim influence is undoubtedly noticeable in Arakanese life from that period. This practice probably was first introduced in fulfilment of the promise made by Meng Soamwan but was continued in later times as a token of sovereignty in Chittagong which was recognised as being geographically beyond the country of the Arakanese race. Though Meng Khari (1434-59), successor of Nara Meikhla, occupied Ramu and Chittagong and shook off the Muslim authority. When Meng Khari occupied Ramu in 1434-35 the Chakmas on the frontier had put up a strong resistance on behalf of Muslims. But as nore-inforcement arrived from Gaur, the Chakmas were compelled to cede some part of Ramu to the Arakan king. The village of Rajakul and Chakmarkul near Ramu commemorate that invasion. However, the Muslims were not long in shaking off the authority of the Arakan kings from Chittagong.

In the beginning of sixteenth century there was a triangular fight between Hussain Shah, Tippera King Dhanya Manikya (1463-1515) and the Arakan king Minyaza (1501-23) for the conquest of Chittagong. The Tippera king's army under general Chaychag in which Tippera army captured the fort at Meherkul and advanced upto the capital at Rangamati, (Dr. S.K. Chatterjee 6 thinks Chaychag was a tribal chief). Acording to Rajmal, Dhanya Manikya captured Chittagong in 1513 and extended his domain upto Ramu and Chatrasik in Arakan in 1515. He struck coins to signify his victory in Chittagong. The Tipperah king's general in this campaign was named Rasagaamardan (victory of Arakan).

According to Arakanese history, the Arakan king, Min Yaza in 1517-18 sent an invasion to conquer Chittagong in charge general Sendaija who travelled by land with 4000 soldiers. The Arakan prince, Iremong, commanded the navy. The Mughal governor of Chittagong, (Yasin?) fled to Sonargaon. Prince Iremong occupied Sandwip and Hatiya and established his headquarters at Lakhipur. The Arakan king visited the newly conquered territory of Chittagong and Dacca in 1517. In 1518 the Chakma king Chanui made submission to the Magh king and sent four ministers with two white elephants. Dharangri, the Magh governor of Chittagong, reported this to the Magh king who was at Dacca. Meantime General Sendaija who was on a visit to Chittagong, examine the gift of elephants and found that these were not really white elephants but ordinary elephants rubbed over with lime. He became annoyed and detained the ministers of the Chakma king. When came to the notice of the Magh king he took his general to task saying that the Chakma king had followed the tradition of making presents of white elephants to the Magh king and should not be punished. The Magh king was pleased to bestow the title, "Kulangphru" to the Chakma king. When the Magh king was returning to Arakan in 1520 he married the daughter of the Chakma king at Chittagong.

According to Rajmala, the Tipperaa king Debmanikya occupied Chittagong in 1522 after defeating Maghs. The Arakan king Minbin (153-53), who was a capable ruler, occupied Ramu and Chittagong in 1531 and struck coins in which Chittagong and his Muslim name Zabauk Shah were inscribed. It was during Minbin's time that the Maghi system of land measurement in drones was introduced in Chittagong district. The Maghi calander is still in vogue in Chittagong and was mentioned in documents till recently. It is 35 years behind the Bengali year.

Arakan entered the greatest period of her history with the accession of Minbin in 1531. The king of Arakan firmly established their authority in Chittagong during the great part of the sixteenth century. Only for a short period during the reign of Mahmud Shah and Sher Shah in Bengal, Chittagong was in Muslim hands. According to an inscription in a sliver plate found in a Buddhist Kyang (Temple) in Chittagong, the Kyang (Temple) was built in 1542 by Chandilah Raja who was probably Arakanese governor for the Chittagong.

According to Arakanese history, Nusrat Khan Son of Hamza Khan, the Pathan governor of Chittagong made submission to the Arakanese king Sawlha (1553-64) and sent him presents, Nusrat Khan had clashes with the Minseyta (1554-71), successor of Sawlha, and was killed by the Portuguese, who were supporting the Arakanese, in 1569-70. Caeser Frederico has also referred to this incident. Ralph Fitch who was in Chittagong in 1585 expressly stated that it was often under the Arakan king.

The Maghs entered Udaypur, looted it and camped there for 15 days in 1586 AD when Meng-Phalaung (1571-93) was the king of Arakan. He held all Chiltagong, and parts of Noakhali and Tippera. His son, Minnala, was the governor of Cbittagong. When the Tipperah king, Amar Manikya, was defeated in 1586, Jalal Khan is said to have died out of fear. Jalal's son, Ibrahim Khan, was the Uzir of Chittagong only in name. The real power was exercised by the Magh governor who was usually the second son of the Magh king.

In 1599 the Arakan king, Meng Razagvi (1593-1612) attacked Pegu. During the Arakanese occupation of Chittagong there were forts at Hinguli, Kumira, Garjis and Koterpara (near Hathazari). The Arakan king, Meng Radzagyi, who called himself king of Bengala and Tippera, issued from Chittagong trilingual coins in 1601 in Arabic, Burmese and Devanagri characters with his Burmese and Muslim titles. For a short time during his reign the Arakan dominion extended from Dacca and the Sunderbans upto Moulmein. Under the Mugh kings Chittagong was divided into three principalities e. g. Dianga, Chakrasals and Ramu. Under Arakanese occupation the governor of Chittagong was either a son, brother or faithful kinsman of the Arakan king who was supported by an Arakanese garrison. Every year the king sent a hundred boats full of troops, powder and ball and then the garrison, and boats sent in the previous year returned home to Arakan. Imports, and exports were subject to taxation during, the Arakanese rule in Chittagong. Taxes were also levied on fisheries, salt, dry fish and fruitful trees. The king had a monopoly in minerals, teak wood etc- Fees were realised for granting permission to dig tanks and canals, erect bridges and temples, and make roads. The union of the Portuguese freebooters with the Arakanese ushered the greatest period in Arakanese history (1550-1666) during which Chittagong was mostly in Arakanese hands.

Towards the latter part of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese settlement at Chittagong was in a flourishing state.The king of Arakan who held it, was favourably disposed towards the Portuguese. According to Ain-i- Akbari (1590) "To the east and south of Bengal is an extensive kingdom called Arakhang. The port of Chittagong belongs to it."

Two days after the tide turned, as Carvalho came with relief from Sandwip. He and Mattos got up 50 vessels among which were 2 foists, 4 catures, 3 barques, and the rest being jaleas. With this fleet they set out early in the morning and made surprise attack on enemy's ships with such fury and violence that they were completely routed. They became masters of all the Arakanese ships numbering 149 with all ammunition muskets and other implements of war. Many Arakanese lost their lives in this engagement, notably Sinabadi, the uncle of the king of Arakan who was governor of Chittagong. Some escaped by jumping into the sea and swimming across to land.

In 1609 dispute arose between the heir apparent of Arakan and his brother Anaporan. The prince actually fought a battle against his brother, who, being defeated, fled to Gonsalves, ruler of Sandwip. Gonsalves promised to succour him and kept his daughter as a hostage. He and Anaporan combining their armies marched against the king of Arakan but as the latter came with an army of 80000 men and 700 fighting elephants, they returned to Sandwip. In the sea fight, however, Gonsalves's brother Antonio captured 100 sails of the enemy with only 5 vessels on his side. Anaporan brought over to Sandwip his wife, children and all his treasure. Gonsalves married Anaporan's daughter. Shortly after Anaporan died and as Gonsalves seized his treasure it was suspected he caused his death. The Portuguese took the son of Anaporan who was 8 years old and a minor daughter to Hughli. In 1614 Meng Soa Pya, son of Nandabayon, king- of Pegu, succeeded Anaporan as governor of Chittagong. In, 1630 for war service against the Mughal he was given the tittle of Bohmong.

Raja Maung Saw Pru (also spelt Mong Saw Pru) was a son of King Nanda Bayin (Nanda Bayin, was king of Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1581 to 1599) and grandson of Bayinnaung (Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta was king of the Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1550 to 1581). He was the 1st Governor of the Bohmong Circle (modern-day Bandarban District) from 1599 to 1631 appointed by Arakan king Min Razagyi during the Toungoo dynasty.

Maung Saw Pru is the first ruler of Bohmong Htaung (Circle) who was the son of King Nanda Bayin of Pegu and grandson of Bayinnaung.

In 1599, Min Razagyi (Min Razagyi was king of Arakan from 1593 to 1612.), the King of Arakan led to the capitulation of Hanshawaddy Kingdom (The Hanthawaddy Kingdom was the Mon kingdom that ruled lower Burma (Myanmar) from 1287 to 1539 and from 1550 to 1552). Nanda Bayin, the King of Pegu was defeated and perished in the war. Daughter of Nanda Bayin, Princess Thien Daw Hnang and minor Prince Maung Saw Prue were taken into Mrauk U Kingdom, the capital of Arakan, as captive along with other booties. Some 3000 families from Pegu followed the scion of their ruler and settled in Arakan.

The Arakanese King Min Razagyi appointed a Prince of Pegu Maung Saw Pru as the governor of newly established Bohmong Htaung (Circle) by giving the title of "Bohmong" Raja in 1599. Son of the Min Razagyi, King Khamaung (Min Khamaung; was a king of Arakan from 1612 to 1622) of Mrauk U married the Princess Thien Daw Hnang and appointed his brother-in-law Prince Maung Saw Pru as Governor of Chittagong in 1614.

The Mong Circle, chiefdom's members are of Marma descent and are known as phalansa. Most inhabitants of the Mong Circle settled in the northwest during a migration wave from the Kingdom of Mrauk U (modern-day Arakan State in Myanmar) between the 16th and 18th centuries, while inhabitants of the other Marma chiefdom, the Bohmong Circle settled in the south and are known as ragraisa.

The Kingdom of Mrauk-U was an independent coastal kingdom of Arakan which existed for over 350 years. It was based in the city of Mrauk-U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The kingdom from 1429 to 1785 ruled over what is now Rakhine State, Myanmar and Chittagong Division, Bangladesh. From 1429 to 1531 it was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. After gaining independence from Bengal, it prospered with help from the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. In 1666, it lost control of Chittagong after a war with the Mughal Empire. Its reign continued until the 18th century, when it fell to the invasion of the Burmese Empire.

The Mong Circle dates to 1782 with the first chieftain, Mrachai. During British rule, the British authorities designated the Mong Circle in 1871, to encompass an ethnically mixed population in the Feni valley. In 1881, the Chittagong Hill Tracts were administratively divided into three circles, namely the Chakma Circle, the Bohmong Circle, and the Mong Circles, each presided over by a hereditary chief from the Chakma and Marma peoples. The circles were codified into law with the Chittagong Hill Tract Regulations, 1900, eased revenue collection and administrative burdens on British authorities by delegating tax collection, land administration management and social arbitration responsibilities to the chieftains. In 1901, the Mong Circle extended 653 square miles (1,690 km2). This administrative structure remained in place until 1964, when the introduction of local self-government abolished the special status of these circles and brought local administration under the control of the central government.

6. Relationship of the Magh (Marma) people with the rulers of Bengal:

i) Mogh (Marma) during Sultan rules in Bengal:

During the twenty-six years of the reign of Alauddin Hussain Shah, the Muslim kingdom in Bangladesh expanded enormously. By restoring internal peace and order, Sultan Alauddin Hussain Shah concentrated on expanding the territory. Hussein Shah's military achievements can be divided into five parts: - 1. Sikandar Lodi's Martyrdom Treaty and the capture of North Bihar, II. Kamata-Kamrup and Assam expedition, 3. Orissa expedition, 4. Conflict with Tripura and 5. Conquest of Chittagong.

There was a long-running war between Husain Shah and the king of Tripura. The history of the kings of Tripura mentions this conflict in "Rajmala". It is known from Rajmala that Tripura Raja Dhanya-Manikya dominated Chittagong for some time. There is also mention of the occupation of Chittagong by the Arakanese Raj for some time. However, there is ample evidence of the permanent rights of Hussain Shah in Chittagong in contemporary Bengali literature and other sources. So it is believed that the kings of Tripura and Arakan clashed with Hussain Shah over the occupation of Chittagong. Due to the location and commercial situation in Chittagong, these clashes are very normal. However, it can be said without any doubt that the occupation of the kings of Arakan over Chittagong were very short-lived and the rights of the Husain Shahi rulers over Chittagong were intact from 1517 to 1538 AD. Nasrat Shah, son of Husain Shah, and most probably later Paragal Khan Chhuti Khan was the ruler of Chittagong.

Afghan rule in Bengal:

Sher Khan Sur was the founder of the Afghan rule in Bengal. After the victory in the battle of Tosar, Sher Khan took the title of Sher Shah and declared independence in Bihar. He hastily attacked Gaur and captured the capital of Bengal by killing the Mughal ruler Jahangir Quli and his followers. By dominating Bengal and Bihar, Sher Shah occupied many parts of northern India. Humayun marched with his army to capture him. A battle was fought with Humayun near Sher Shah's Kanauj. Humayun was defeated in the battle of Kanauj (May 17, 1540 AD). As a result of this battle, Sher Shah ascended the throne of Delhi and established the Sur Afghan Empire in northern India by dispersing Humayun. From this Bangladesh again became part of the Delhi Empire. Bangladesh belonged to Sher Shah's empire till Chittagong and Shrihat. Until the reign of Sher Shah's son and successor Islam Shah (1545-53 AD) Bangladesh was under Delhi. After the death of Islam Shah, the Afghan Empire was divided in the fierce civil war that broke out among the Afghans over the throne of Delhi. At this time Muhammad Khan Sur, the ruler of Bengal, declared independence and Muhammad Shah took the title of Sur. Meng Bang, the Mugh king of Arakan, captured Chittagong on the occasion of the Afghan Civil War. Muhammad Shah Sur defeated the Maghs and recaptured Chittagong and conquered Arakan. But his rule over Arakan did not last long.

ii) Mogh (Marma) during Mughal rule in Bengal:

During the reign of Emperor Akbar, nominal Bangladesh became part of the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule could not be established in this province. Mughal rule was confined to the cities and forts of north-west Bengal. The great zamindars (Land lords) of Bengal did not accept the Mughal rule. They adopted independence in their zamindari (land lord) after the end of Karrani rule. These zamindars (Land Lords) are known as Bar Bhuiyan. Most of the Bar Bhuiyans were Muslims.

Emperor Akbar appointed Shahbaz Khan, one of his most famous generals, as the subaddar (Head of Administration) of Bengal in 1583 AD to establish Mughal rule in Bangladesh by suppressing the Bar Bhuiyans. Shahbaz Khan organized a massive campaign against Isa Khan and Masum Kabuli, the leaders of the Bar Bhuiyans. Isa Khan and Masum Kabuli expelled the Mughals from their zamindari. Subadar Sadiq Khan (1585 AD) and Wazir Khan (1586 AD), the successors of Shahbaz Khan, could not benefit from fighting against the zamindars for a long time. In 1608 AD Islam Khan was appointed Subadar. Subaddar Islam Khan (1608-1613 AD) suppressed the Bar Bhuiyans and established Mughal rule in the province. After the death of Subaddar Islam Khan, his younger brother Qasim Khan was appointed Subadar of Bengal (1613 AD). In 1616, Meng Beng, king of Arakan, joined the Portuguese pirates and attacked Bhuluya. Qasim Khan marched against them with a large navy. In the meantime, there was a rift between Meng Bang and his Firingi allies. On this occasion the Mughal army attacked the Arakanese forces and drove them out of Bhuluya. Kashim Khan tried to conquer Chittagong. His expedition to Chittagong failed.

Emperor Jahangir appointed Ibrahim Khan Fateh Jung as subaddar of Bengal in 1617 AD in place of Qasim Khan. Ibrahim Khan was the brother of Empress Nurjahan Begum. Emperor Jahangir instructed him to take possession of this neighboring kingdom. In 1618 AD, Ibrahim Khan under Mirza Isfandiar and Mirza Nuruddin sent expeditions to the state of Tripura by land and water. The Mughal forces advanced towards Udaipur, the capital of Tripura, via Meherpur and Comilla. King Yasomanikya resists them, but he suffers many losses in battle. He took refuge in Udaipur. Mughal forces attacked Udaipur and captured it. Yasomanikya fled to Arakan. At this time King Meng Khamang of Arakan was seizing the Sandhip from the Firingis and plundering the land on the banks of the Meghna River. Ibrahim Khan marched with a strong fleet to punish the Maghs of Arakan and drove them out of the Meghna. A few months later he organized an expedition from Tripura to Arakan. Leaving the fleet on the Feni iver, he proceeded towards Chittagong by land. On the way to the dense jungle his soldiers suffered great hardships and an epidemic broke out among them. Due to this the Arakan expedition was stopped.

After the accession of Emperor Shahjahan to the throne, Fidai Khan was replaced by Kashim Khan Juniy as Subaddar of Bengal (04 February 1628). After Kashim Khan Jr., Azam Khan was the subaddar of Bengal for three years. After this Islam Khan Mashadi (1635-39 AD) was appointed Subadar.

King Thudhamma of Arakan died during the reign of Subaddar Islam Khan Mashadi (1638 AD). King Thudhamma's son and his successor were killed and an official took over the throne. Thudhamma's brother and the ruler of Chittagong, Mangatara, fought against the usurper of the throne. Defeated in Mangatara, he fled and took refuge with the people in Jahangirnagar. The Mograja entered the Meghna River with a large navy and plundered the coastal areas. The Subadar advanced with a strong fleet to intercept the Maghs. Frightened, the king returned to his kingdom.

For the several times the rulers of Bengal tried to occupy Chittagong by attacking the Mugh kings, the rulers of greater Chittagong, in order to extend their territory. Because then Chittagong was under Arakan state and was ruled by Mugh king.

7. Magh/Marma during Arakan rule in Chittagong (1550--1666 A.D):

The Mughals since the death, of Daud Khan in 1575 were in possession of Bengal and had over thrown the Bhuiyans by 1612. They were now planning the conquest of Bhulua. As this place was close to Sandwip, Gonsalves and the king of Arakan, thinking that the Mughals would be a danger to their kingdoms, forgot their enmity and entered, into a mutual agreement to combat them. They planned in 1614 to invade. Bengal the Portuguese in a fleet by sea, and the king of Arakan, Meng Khamaung, with an army by land. The king of Arakan entrusted the whole of his fleet to Gonsalves keeping his nephew as hostage. During these negotiations Gonsalves gave back the widow of Anaporan who afterwards married the governor of Chittagong. The king of Arakan and the Portuguese attacked in. 1614-15 the Mughals and drove them out of the principality of Bhulua and took Lakhipur, while Gonsalves barred their advance from the sea.

In 1616 Quasim Khan, Subhadar of Bengal, launched an offensive against the Raja of Arakan with Chittagong as first objective. He himself advanced to Bhulua (February, 1616), whence he despatched Abdun Nabi with a force of 5000 cavalry, 5000 musketeers, 200 war elephants and a fleet of 1000 war boats towards Chittagong. The Arakan king, Meng Khamaung (Hussein Shah ) decided to check their advance by making a fort at Katghar, a strategic point about 20 miles north west of Chittagong( a village 2 miles south of Barabakunda ). He sent his chief officer Karamgiri with a force of 100,000 infantry besides 400 elephants and 1000 war boats to complete the fort and bold it. He personally started from his capital for the defence of his stronghold of Chittagong with an army of 300,000 infantry and 10,000 calalry, besides a large number of elephants and war boats. Informed by spies that the new fort was not yet complete and that the garrison in the fort of Chittagong was also very small as the Arakan king had not yet reached with his force, Abd-un-Nabi hastened to Katghar leaving behind Sarbad Khan and Shaik Kamal to make a fort and hold it for the purpose of keeping up communication and food supply to the invading army, and delivered a vigorous assault on the unfinished fort in the early hours of the morning. The Arakanese were taken by surprise and though they greeted the Mughals with a .heavy shower of shells, bullets, arrows, bombs and stones the latter quickly overcame the resistance and pressed the garrison,so hard that the fall of the fort seemed imminent. At this stage, the Mughal commander, owing to his want of experience and judgment, was easily induced by some of his officers to suspend hostilities for the day, and this single mistake turned the tide of the whole campaign.

When the attack was resumed next morning, the situation had entirely changed. The garrison bad recovered from the shock of the sudden assault and offered such a determined resistance that the idea of storming the fort bad to be abandoned, and a siege decided on. But the siege operations dragged on and the besiegers themselves were soon reduced to the position of the besieged as a result of the activity of the commandant of the enemy fort. At the threat to the food supply of the main army, the Mughal commander raised the siege and retreated towards Dacca, leaving behind his heavy artillery and destroying about 500 mds. of gun powder (May, 1616). The Imperial army had halted at Nizampur which had been in possession of the Arakanese. The local zaminder (Land lord) surrendered to the Mughal commander. But after the departure of the Mughal army, the pargana with a revenue of Rs. 600/- was re-occupied by the Mughs.

In March, 1621 Ibrstnm Khan launched his long deferred Arakan campaign with Cbittagong as his objective from his new base at Tipperah. The route was more direct no doubt but it lay through a hilly region clad with dense forests, with a bad climate, and involving considerable difficulties in regard to transport and food supply, Ibrahim Khan was ill-advised to adopt this new route and the expedition failed, primarily because of his initial mistake in regard to the choice of the route. Leaving the fleet in the big Feni river, the viceroy proceeded with the land army slowly along the new route to Chittagong, clearing the forest as be passed by. In some places the forest was so thick that even the horses and the elephants could not move without great difficulty. The scarcity of food and pestilence in his camp forced Ibrahim Khan to withdraw with the ranks much depleted and the morale of the army much shaken. In 1625 the twelve chiefs who ruled Chittagong on behalf of the Magh governor rebelled at the instigation of the Mugbal viceroy. Thiri Thudamma marched with his army, the navy following him, and crushed the rebellion. He raided Bhulua during this campaign.10 He then proceeded unopposed to Khizirpur along the Dulai to the out-skirts of Dacca, defeated the Mughal officers who had at last come out to face them, entered the city and sacked it and retired with a large booty and a number of captives. At this time Mahabat Khan was the governor of Bengal but the administration of Bengal was in charge of Khanzad Khan, son of Mahabat Khan, a lazy, pleasure-see king youth. This was the last raid by Mughs during the reign of Jahangir. Though Mirza Bagis, the Bhulna tbanadar had been11 supplied with 700 cavalry and 300 war boats he could not check the Arakan force. During the Arakan occupation Chittagong there was close contact between the peoples of Chittagong and Arakan. A large number of Muslim noblemen who had left Gaur after its fall had gone to Arakan and settled in the capital. They were the chief courtiers of the Arakan king whose court followed Muslim manners and customs. The Muslim courtiers of the Arakan king were great patrons of Bengali literature. Poets like Daulat Qadi and Alawal flourished at Arakan during this period and received patronage from Syed Musa, Magan Thakur and others. Magan Thakur, who practically exercised the powers of a chief minister, was himself a poet.

Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) had rebelled against his father and occupied Dacca after killing Ibrahim Khan, the subahdar in 1624. At this time Thiri Thudamma (1622-38) sent his envoy to Dacca with rare gifts worth rupees one lac as peshkash. The Arakan raja through his envoy swore loyalty to the prince. The prince sent a valuable dress of honour with many precious gifts to the Arakan king and issued a Farman confirming the sovereignty of his territory which then included Chittagong.

An event occurred in 1638 which gave an additional impetus to the game of piracy in its most frightful form. Mangat Ray or Mukut Ray, governor of Chittagong, rebelled against the king of Arakan. After an unsuccessful attempt to raid Arakan he fled to Bengal for safety along with his leading partisans. He marched towards Bhulua and wrote to the Imperial thanadar of the frontier post of Jugdia for protection from the pursuing Magh fleet. By Islam Khan's command the thanadar of Jugdia drove away by gun fire 200 Magh jalias which were obstructing Mangat Rai and ferried him over the Feni River into Mughal territory. Taking advantage of the confusion of civil war in Chittagong over 10,000 people of Bengal who were held in slavery there by the Feringhis escaped to their home land. The Feringhi settlers and pirates of Chittagong who had backed Mangat Rai in his abortive rising, now abandoned that city in fear of the Magh king's vengeance. Most of them migrated to the Portuguese possessions and a few came over to the Mughals with their families and boats. In course of time most of the latter embraced Islam and became merged in the local population.

Mangat Rgi's family and supporters with 14 elephants and nearly 9000 men (both Arakanese and Tailang) reached Dacca and were welcomed and provided for by the Subahdar. To revenge on the Bengal kingdom, the king of Arakan made friends with the Portuguese adventurers, took them into his service, paid those high salaries and settled them in Dianga. With their help he built vessels large enough, to carry cannons. Thus equipped he began ravaging and laying waste the Mughal territory and launched a naval attack which was repulsed by Islam Khan.12 These cruel practices of the Arakanese and the Portuguese to which the people of Bengal were subjected continued till 1666 when Shaista Khan conquered Chittagong and broke their power for ever.

When the luckless prince Shah Shuja was defeated by Mir Jumla, he proceeded from Chittagong by road to Arakan for shelter. On his way to Arakan he is said to have visited Govinda Manikya, the exiled king of Tripura in Chittagong Hill Tracts. Govinda Manikya gave him a warm reception and helped him as far as he could in the circumstances, Shnja was so pleased with the reception that he presented Govinda Msnikya with a diamond ring and a Neemcha sword as token of gratitude. There is a mosque called after Shaja in Comilla. According to tradition Shuja conquered Coniilla and built this mosque as memento of his conquest. It is said that the village Shuja-nagar in Tipperah contained the property given in waqf for the maintenance of this mosque. The place in Cox's Bazar subdivision where Shuja had said his Eidul Fitr prayers in 1660 during his ill-fated journey is known as Idgaown. The high road from Daudkandi in Tipperah district to Arakan through Chittagong is still known as Shah Shuja's Road. Presumably, it was built during Shah Shuja's viceroyalty in Bengal. There are a number of mosques on the side of the road from Daudkandi to Comilla which are said to have been built by the camp followers of Shah Shuja. Shah Shuja requested the king of Arakan to give him shelter and provide ships so that he could go to Mecca.

The king Sandathudamma (1652-84) consented and Shuja with his family and followers were brought to Mrouhaung, the capital city of Arakan, in Portuguese gelasses from Teknaf. He arrived at Mrohaung on 26th August, 1660 and was favourably received by the king who assigned him a residence near the city. Shuja kept aloof from the king repelled by his table manners. The Arakanese had never seen the like of his treasure, six or eight camel loads of gold and jewels; moreover the Mughals offered large sums for his extradition. Eight months went by, yet the king never provided the ships he had promised. Finally he asked for Shuja's eldest daughter, and .Shuja, a blue-blooded Mughal of the Imperial house, felt that his cup of bitterness was full. He was helpless and could not get away. Shah Shuja, realising his peril, made a desperate attempt to escape from the country. But his plans miscarried, and when the populace got upon his followers the latter ran amok and set fire to a large part of the city before they were rounded up and massacred. It was given out that Shah .Shuja had attempted to seize the place. The king, it was said, had been dissuaded by his mother from having him killed. She argued that killing princes was a dangerous sport for which his own subjects might acquire a taste. But on 7-2-1661 Shah Shuja's residence was attacked and there was another massacre. Shah Shuja was never seen again. It was rumoured that he had fled to the .hills with his sons but had been caught and put to death. The chief of the Dutch factory at Mrohang reported (the prince Shah Shuja is believed, though with no certainty, to .have perished in the first fury, but his body was made unrecognisable by the grandees in order the better to be able to deck their persons with the costly jewels he wore. His three sons, together with his wives and daughters, have been taken ; the wives and daughters have been brought to the King's palace and the sons after being imprisoned for some time, have been released and permitted to live in a little house. Every day the .gold and silver which the Arakanese have taken, are brought into the King's treasury to be melted down.')

As soon as Mir Jumla heard through the Dutch factory at Dacca of Shah Shuja's murder he commanded a Dutch ship to carry an envoy to Mrohaung with a peremptory demand for the surrender of Shah Shuja's children. It was refused and the king protested to Batavia against the use of Dutch ship by a Mughal envoy. In July 1663 a desperate attempt to rescue the three captive princes failed. Thereupon the king burnt his boats 'by having them beheaded and slaughtering a large number of Bengalees and Moslems at the capital. A mournful ballad about the tragic life of the daughter of Shuja is current in Chitta-gong and Arakan and has been collected in East Bengal Ballads published by the Calcutta University.

8. The expulsion of the Mogh/Mugh (Marma) from Chittagong:

The expulsion of the Mogh/Mugh from Bangladesh and the conquest of Chittagong was a particularly memorable and meritorious deed of Shaista Khan's subadari. Chittagong was ruled by the Arakanese king. In 1617, the Arakanese king seized the Sandhip from the Portuguese. As a result, it was very convenient for the Mugh/Mogh pirates to plunder the Meghna region up to Dhaka. Mogh/Mugh and Firingi pirates used to come together and cause havoc in this area. The Portuguese and Firingi pirates were called Harmads. These pirates captured men and women and sold them as slaves to European merchants. European merchants sent them to different countries as commodities. The Maghs/Mughs took many to Arakan and employed men as laborers and kept girls as slaves.

Subedar Shaista Khan felt the urgent need to take measures to protect the lives and property of the people from the intrusion of the Mogh and Firingi pirates. To repel them, he built many warships and collected warships from different places. In this way he equipped 300 warships and prepared for the campaign against the pirates. His mission was to conquer Sandhip and Chittagong. Shortly before the expedition, a fugitive naval chief of the Mughal navy named Dilayar snatched Sandhip from the Arakanese and established his dominance there. Ibn Husain, the Mughal naval commander, attacked Sandhip with his navy and defeated and captured Dilayar and captured Sandhip (November 1665 AD). At this time a dispute arose between the Mogh rulers of Chittagong and the Portuguese and the Mughal officials of Noakhali took advantage of this. The Firingis of Chittagong took refuge in Noakhali in 42 fishing boats with their families and treasures.

Subedar Shaista Khan sent an expedition from Dhaka to conquer Chittagong on 24 December 1665 AD. Buzurg Umed Khan, the eldest son of Subadar, was appointed chief of the expedition. Ibn Husayn, the commander of the navy, set sail for the river with 288 warships. The Firingis joined him with 40 warships. Buzurg Umed's army advanced from Noakhali and Ibn Husain's navy marched towards Chittagong from the coast of Bahia. On 14 January the Mughal troops crossed the Feni River and entered the Chittagong area. When the Mughal fleet left Comilla and approached the Kathalia canal, it was stopped by the Mogh navy. On 23th and 24th January 1666 AD, a naval battle was fought between the two sides near Kathalia canal. The Mogh naval fleet suffered heavy losses in this battle and it fell into the Karnafuli River. The Mogh navy was ready to resist the Mughals on the Karnafuli River. Ibn Husayn's navy entered the Karnafuli River and attacked the Maghs. Several ships of the Arakanese sank in the Mughal shelling. They were completely defeated and 135 of their warships were captured by the Mughals. The victorious Mughal naval commander besieged the port of Chittagong by river. At this time the army of Buzurg Umed was near Chittagong. One day after the battle, the Mogh army became helpless and surrendered to Ibn Husain.

On 26 January 1666 AD, the victorious Mughal general Buzurg Umed entered the Chittagong fort. 2000 Moghs were captured by the Mughals. The Mogh pirates captured thousands of Bengali peasants and enslaved them, but they were released after the Mughal conquest of Chittagong. Chittagong became part of the Mughal Empire and its rule was vested in a faujdar. By the order of the emperor, the name of Chittagong was changed to Islamabad.

After the occupation of the Chittagong region of the Arakan state by the ruler of Bengal, most of the Arakanese Maghs/Marmas settled in the Chittagong Hill Tracts along with the Magh / Marma and other ethnic groups. As Greater Chittagong was formerly part of the Arakan Empire, the Arakanese Maghs settled in Bandarban, Rangamati and various parts of Khagrachhari district and Rangunia, Satkania and Eidgaon in Chittagong district and the Rakhine settled in Cox's Bazar, Maheshkhali, Ukhia and Teknaf. Mugs / Marmas stay permanently in these places. The Mughs/Marmas lived in the river valleys like Sangu River, Karnafuli River, Matamuhri River and Zum farmers lived in the hills.

In 1760 AD, Chittagong district was transferred to East India Company. In 1781 AD, The Chittagong Hill Tracts were blocked or economically isolated. Thus the war lasted for about 10 years. Finally tired, the government of the company made a treaty with the Chakma king in 16 AD. In that treaty the internal independence of the king of the Chittagong Hill Tracts was recognized.

The year 1937-48 is very important in the history of political evolution of the Indian subcontinent. Towards the end of this period, the British government decided to hand over power, which resulted in the creation of two independent and sovereign states, India and Pakistan. Pakistan became independence on 14 August 1947. The state of Pakistan was born on 14 August 1947 on the basis of biracialism. Bangladesh became independence on 16 December 1971.

9. Pegu from where the Marma of Bomaong Circle arrived (Bohmaong Hthong):

Pegu, Burmese Bago (Bago formerly spelt Pegu) formerly known as Hanthawaddy is a city and the capital of the Bago Region in Myanmar. The pegu city, on the Pegu River, 47 miles (76 km) northeast of Yangon (Rangoon). Pegu was the capital of the Mon kingdom and is surrounded by the ruins of its old wall and moat, which formed a square, with 1.5-mile (2.4-kilometre) sides. On the Yangon–Mandalay railway, it is the start of a branch line southeast along the Gulf of Martaban, an inlet of the Bay of Bengal, and has extensive road links in all directions.

In 1369, King Binnya U made Bago the capital. The city remained the capital until the kingdom's fall in 1538. During the reign of King Razadarit, Bago and Ava Kingdom were engaged in the Forty Years' War. The peaceful reign of Queen Shin Sawbu came to an end when she chose the Buddhist monk Dhammazedi (1471–1492) to succeed her. Under Dhammazedi, Bago became a centre of commerce and Theravada Buddhism.

In 1519, António Correia, then a merchant from the Portuguese casados settlement at Cochin landed in Bago, then known to the Portuguese as Pegu, looking for new markets for pepper from Cochin. A year later, Portuguese India Governor Diogo Lopes de Sequeira sent an ambassador to Pegu. The Portuguese conquest of Pegu, following the destruction caused by the kings of Tangot and Arrakan in 1599.

The capital was looted by the viceroy of Toungoo, Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo, and then burned by the viceroy of Arakin during the Burmese–Siamese War (1594–1605). Anaukpetlun wanted to rebuild Hangsawadi, which had been deserted since Nanda Bayin had abandoned it. He was only able to build a temporary palace, however. The Burmese capital relocated to Ava in 1634. In 1740, the Mon revolted and founded the Restored Hansawaddy Kingdom. However, a Bamar king, Alaungpaya, captured the city in May 1757. Bago was rebuilt by King Bodawpaya (r. 1782-1819), but by then the river had shifted course, cutting the city off from the sea. It never regained its previous importance. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War, the British annexed Bago in 1852. In 1862, the province of British Burma was formed, and the capital moved to Yangon. The substantial differences between the colloquial and literary pronunciations, as with Burmese words, was a reason of the British corruption "Pegu".

10. The Mrauk-U Where from the Marma of Mong Circle (Palai Mang Hthong):

It was home to a multiethnic population with the city of Mrauk U being home to mosques, temples, shrines, seminaries and libraries. The kingdom was also a center of piracy and the slave trade. It was frequented by Arab, Danish, Dutch and Portuguese traders.

11. About Arakane from where the Marma arrived:

Arakan, coastal geographic region in southern Myanmar (Burma). It comprises a long, narrow strip of land along the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal and stretches from the Nāf estuary on the border of the Chittagong Hills area (in Bangladesh) in the north to the Gwa River in the south. The Arakan region is about 400 miles (640 km) long from north to south and is about 90 miles (145 km) wide at its broadest. The Arakan Yoma, a range that forms the eastern boundary of the region, to some extent isolates it from the rest of southern Myanmar. The coast has several sizable offshore islands, including Cheduba and Ramree. The region’s principal rivers are the Nāf estuary and the Mayu, Kaladan, and Lemro rivers.

Only one-tenth of Arakan’s generally hilly land is cultivated. Rice is the dominant crop in the delta areas, where most of the population is concentrated. Other crops include fruits, chilies, dhani (thatch), and tobacco. The natural hillside vegetation of evergreen forest has been destroyed over wide areas by shifting cultivation (slashing and burning to clear land for cultivation) and has been replaced by a useless tangle of bamboo.

The main towns are coastal and include Sittwe (Akyab), Sandoway, Kyaukpyu, and Taungup. Long accessible only by sea, the Arakan region is now linked by air and road with the rest of the country. An all-weather road running through a pass in the Arakan Yoma connects Taungup with Pyè on the Irrawaddy River.

Arakanese, also called Rakhine, ethnic group centred in the Arakan coastal region of Myanmar (Burma), in the state of Rakhine. Most Arakanese speak an unusual variety of the Burmese language that includes significant differences from Burmese pronunciation and vocabulary.

An independent Arakanese kingdom was probably established as early as the 4th century CE and was led at various times by Muslim as well as Buddhist rulers. Modern Arakanese continue to follow distinctive traditions and to celebrate this part of their history. The huge Mahamuni statue (now in Mandalay) is considered by Buddhist Arakanese to be their national image and is alleged to predate the Burmese kingdom centred at Pagan (1044–1287 CE) by a millennium.

Eventually the Mongols, and later the Portuguese, invaded Arakan. In 1785 Burmese forces conquered the Arakanese kingdom and carried the Mahamuni statue off to Mandalay. The Arakan region was ceded to the British in 1826 through the Treaty of Yandabo. When Myanmar became independent from British rule in 1948, the province in which the Arakanese are dominant was named Arakan. This name was changed to Rakhine in the 1990s.

12. Situation of Marma in Bangladesh:

The Marma people are the second-largest ethnic community in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts, primarily residing in the Bandarban, Khagrachari and Rangamati Hill Districts. Some Marmas live in Bangladesh's coastal districts of Cox's Bazar and Patuakhali, while others live in State of Tripura, India and Myanmar. There are over 210,000 Marmas living in Bangladesh. Since the 16th century, the Marma have considered the Chittagong Hill Tracts their home, where they have established the Bohmong and Mong Circles (Circle chief).

Marma inhabited areas in Bangladesh are - in Bandraban district - Sadar, Roangchhari, Ruma, Thanchi, Lama, Alikadam and Naikhyangchhari. In Khagrachhari Sadar, Ramgarh, Laxichhari, Manikchhari, Guimara, Matiranga and Panchhari upazilas. In Rangamati district, Marmas live in Sadar, Kaptai, Kaukhali, Rajsthali, Bilaichhari and a very small number of Naniachar upazilas. Rangunia and Fatikchhari upazilas of Chittagong district and Baraghona in Barisal district In cox’s Bazar and Patuakhali mostly are Rakhain.

There are about 35 smaller groups of Indigenous communities in Bangladesh covering about two percent of the total population have been living in different pockets of the hilly zones and some plain lands of the country. On the other hand according to the Bangladesh Adivasi Forum, there are 45 ethnic groups with approximately 2.5 million living side by side with the Bengali majority people. According to the government statistics the total number of Adivasi is 12,05,978 which is only 1.03 percent of the total population. They are-

Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Tanchanga, Bawm, Chak, Khyang, Khumi, Lushai, Mro. Pangkhoa, and Rakhain, in Chttagong Hill Tracts regions. Bhuimale, Lahra, Mahali, Monda, Noonia, Oraro, Pahan, Palia, Rabidas, Raybansi, Ranjoarh, Rana KIarmaker, Santal, in the North Bengal Region and Been, Bhumig, Boraj, Barman, Dalu, Garo, Hajongn, Haleam, Kharia, Khari, Koch,Konda, Kurmi, Manipuri, Nayek, Pangan, Patra, Shabar in the Mymensingh and Sylhet .

The primary census report of 2011 gives the number of ethnic population groups of Bangladesh.

Although the Marma tribe of Bangladesh has been somewhat influenced by modern living in that they use make use of aluminum cookware and glass or china crockery in place of their traditional pottery, bamboo and wood utensils, they still follow many of the traditional ways of life. Their bamboo, straw and wild grass houses are built on wooden or bamboo platforms raised above the ground. The space below the floor is used for storage, or as shelter for livestock. Their clothing typically consists of a sarong for both men and women, with women wearing a blouse and men wearing a type of waistcoat. Traditionally, fabric is woven on handlooms and clothing is generally handmade. However, it is reportedly becoming more common to see Marmas wearing ready-made clothing bought from the local market.

Marma communities consist of nuclear families, with the husband as head of the household. Family and community ties going back through generations are respected, and both sons and daughters can inherit their parent’s property, although not necessarily equally. With rice and vegetables as their staple food, Marmas are subsistence farmers, and are skilled at basketry and weaving.

The traditional three-tier system of political administration continues among the Marmas, with a Raja as the chief, a headman below the Raja and village level authority resting with a karbari. These authoritative figures are entrusted with resolving disputes and maintaining law and order among those under their jurisdiction, continuing a long-held tradition of the Marma Tribe of Bangladesh.

13. Homeland of Marma:

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) in the south-eastern part of Bangladesh comprises a total area of 5,093 sq. miles (13,189 sq. km.) encompassing three hill districts: Rangamati, Khagrachari and Bandarban. It shares borders with Myanmar on the south and southeast, India on the north and northeast, and the Chittagong district of Bangladesh on the west. It is different in georgaphical features, agricultural practices, and soil conditions from the rest of the country due to its mountainous landscape. CHT is located between 21°-40′ degrees and 23°-47′ degrees north latitude and 91°-40′ degrees and 92°-42′ degrees east longitude. It is a unique territory with marked socio-economic and cultural differences from the rest of Bangladesh.

14. The king of Marma (Bomang and Mong Raja):

In Bandarban, Rangamati and Khagrachari of the Chittagong Hill Tracts there is still a king system. For hundreds of years, the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts have been following the orders of the three kings. But the kings do not have much power now. They have no choice but to issue permanent resident certificates, collect taxes, and do some social justice. But the three kings have a long history.

Although they call themselves kings in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, according to the law, their real position is 'Circle Chief'. The term was created during the British rule in accordance with the Chittagong Hilltracks Regulation 1900 Act or the Chittagong Hilltracks Manual. Being a remote hilly area, they divided the Chittagong Hill Tracts into three circles or areas for the purpose of collecting rent and suppressing the Chakma rebellion.

In 1860, the British government divided the Chittagong Hill Tracts into three circles, Chakma, Bomang and Mong. Bomang Circle is located in Bandarban, Chakma Circle in Rangamati and Mong Circle in Khagrachari. From then on the circle system was introduced. According to the rules of the Chakma and Mong circles, the eldest son of the royal family was anointed as the king in the lineage, but in the Bomang circle of Bandarban, the eldest member of the dynasty became the king. Barrister Debashish Roy is currently serving as the Chakma Raja in Rangamati, KS Pru is serving as the Raja of Bandarban Bomang Circle and Saching Pru Chowdhury is serving as the Mong Raja in Khagrachari. It is learned that Debashish Roy was arrested on November 25, 1987 in Rangamati

It is learned that Debashish Roy officially took over as the king on November 25, 1977 in Rangamati. He is the 51st king of the Chakma circle. After the death of 16 Bomang Raja KS Pru, his successor Uch Pru was appointed as Bomang Raja by the government on 24 April 2013. He has been in charge since then. Prior to that, he served as a Civil Engineer in various organizations.

Saching Pru, the current king of the Mong Circle in Khagrachari. When Raja Paiha Pru Chowdhury died in a road accident last year, Saching Pru was appointed king. He is the 9th king of the Mong circle. Meanwhile, there are 178 mouzas in Chakma circle, 97 in Bomang circle and 100 in Mong circle. The headmen act as the head of each mouza. In each neighborhood there is a trader as the king's representative. The king appoints headmen and merchants. And the headman and the traders collect taxes including maintaining law and order in the area. Meanwhile, every year during the winter, three kings organize Rajpunyah. At this time the tenants paid rent for their land. A royal ceremony was organized on the occasion. However, in Rangamati and Khagrachari there is not much circulation of Rajpunyah. But in Bandarban Rajpunyah is held at a certain time every year. And 42 per cent of the rent collected in Rajpunya is deposited in the king's treasury, 37 per cent in the headman and 21 per cent in the government treasury. The kings were very powerful during the British rule. The rights of the kings have been curtailed at different times since the time of Pakistan. Since independence, their power has been declining. Meanwhile, the kings still get only 5 thousand rupees. And Headman 500 and Karbari 300 rupees. There is anger among the king, headman and traders about this. Bomang Raja said, "Even if we are kings, we do not get any benefits."

i) The custom of being king of Bomang; Other dynasties have the policy of anointing a prince. But not the prince in the Bomang dynasty, the oldest member of the dynasty inherits the throne of the Bomang dynasty. The tradition of having the oldest member Rajapada from the sixth Bomang king was introduced.

ii) The custom of being king of Mong; The Mong Circle is the name of the traditional government body in the administrative district of Khagrachari in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Headed by the Mong Chief, or Raja, the Mong Circle is responsible for the operation of customary law within the 88 Mouza areas, and for the management of land and natural resources such as forests and water sources. These vital functions are delivered through an extensive network of 88 Headman and 950 Karbari, with one Headmen governing a Mouza of up to 40 villages. The Karbari are local community leaders who resolve disputes, coordinate development projects and act as a link between village governance and the various formal agencies of the CHT.

iii) Rajpunyah; The festival of collecting rent from the Jum farmers of Bomang Circle has been celebrated since 185. The festival is usually held in December or January every year. Leads in various matters of social justice and tradition in their respective areas. Moreover, after collecting rent from the zoom farmers, they keep their share and deposit the rest in the government's revenue fund. The name of this rent collection ceremony is Rajpunyah.

Although the Chakma Circle of Rangamati and the Rajpunyah Joulus of the Mong Circle of Khagrachari lost over time, it is still celebrated with great pomp in the Bomang Circle of Bandarban. On the occasion of Rajpunyah, a folk fair was organized at the local Rajbari ground. Thousands of hill-Bengali citizens from far and wide of the district attended the festival. Will make. The fair usually lasts for 3 days at Rajpunyah and the surrounding areas including the king's field. Apart from shops and stalls, various sports and events including Jatra songs, Bichitra programs, circus, puppet dances, house games and death wells have been organized at the fair. At present, the festival has become one of the leading brands in the cultural identity and tourism of Bandarban.

At a recent conference, the three kings demanded a bodyguard and a car for the kings. Meanwhile, although the king did not have much power, the royal tradition and the old history of the kings still attract the tourists who come to visit the Chittagong Hill Tracts. So everyone who comes to visit from home and abroad, even if it is at a glance, see the palace. If possible, meet with the king.

i) The Bohmong Circle:

Maung Saw Pru is the first ruler of Bohmong Htaung (Circle) who was the son of King Nanda Bayin of Pegu and grandson of Bayinnaung.

In 1620, who repulsed the Portuguese invasion with extreme courage and valor, King Khamaung conferred the title "Bohmong" (means the Great General) to Maung Saw Pru. Ancestors of the present Bohmong dynasty were the successor of the Pegu King of Burma under the Arakan's rule in Chittagong.

Bohmong Htaung is Now Bandarban District, Chittagong Division, and South-Eastern Bangladesh. Bandarban Hill District was once called Bohmong Htaung since the Arakanese rule.

A son of King Nanda Bayin (son of Bayinnaung) was placed in charge of an area around Chittagong by the King of Arakan in 1599 (after the successful Arakanese attack on Pegu). He was Maung Saw Pru and reigned until 1631. Ever since, his descendants have ruled over what's become known as the "Bohmong Circle", home to over 200,000 people of Arakanese, Burmese, and Mon ancestry in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, now in Bangladesh.

The Kings of Bomang Circle:

1. Mong Saw Pru Bomang (1614-1630 AD)

2. Mong Grai Bomang (1630-1665 AD)

3. Hery Prue Bomang (1665-1687 AD)

4. Hery Nyo Bomangri (1687-1727 AD)

5. Kong Hla Prue Bomangri (1727-1811 AD)

6. Shak Thai Prue Bomangri (1811-1840 AD)

7. Kong Hla Nyo Bomangri (1840-1866 AD)

8. Mong Prue Bomangri (1866-1875 AD)

9. Sha Nhong Nyo Bomangri (1875-1901 AD)

10. Cha Hla Prue Bomangri (1901-1916 AD)

11. Mong Sa Nyo Bomangri (1916-1923 AD)

12. Kya Jai Prue Bomangri (1923-1933 AD)

13. Kya Jaw Shain Bomangri (1933-1959 AD)

14. Mong Sowe Prue Bomangri (1959-1996 AD)

15. Aung Showi Prue Chowdhury Bomangri (1998- 8 August 2012 AD)

16. Kya Sain Prue Chowdhury Bomangri (18 September 2012- 6 February 2013)

17. U Cha Prue Chowdhury Bomangri (24 April 2013- Continue)

The Bohmong chieftains claim descent from Tabinshwehti and Nanda Bayin of the Toungoo Empire. During British rule, the Chittagong Hill Tracts were administratively divided into three circles in 1884, namely the Chakma Circle, the Bohmong Circle, and the Mong Circles, each presided over by a hereditary chief from the Chakma and Marma peoples.The circles were codified into law with the Chittagong Hill Tract Regulations, 1900, eased revenue collection and administrative burdens on British authorities by delegating tax collection, land administration management and social arbitration responsibilities to the chieftains. In 1901, the Bohmong Circle extended 2,064 square miles (5,350 km2). This administrative structure remained in place until 1964, when the introduction of local self-government abolished the special status of these circles and brought local administration under the control of the central government. The Marma inhabitants in the Bohmong Circle are known as ragraisa (Khyong-Sa).

ii) The Mong Circle:

The Mong Circle is one of three hereditary chiefdoms (or "circles") in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of modern-day Bangladesh. The jurisdiction of the Mong Circle encompasses parts of Khagrachhari District. The chiefdom's members are of Marma descent and are known as phalansa. Most inhabitants of the Mong Circle settled in the northwest during a migration wave from the Kingdom of Mrauk U (modern-day Arakan State in Myanmar) between the 16th and 18th centuries.

15. Marma Population:

In Bangladesh: Marmas are the second largest ethnic group in Bangladesh. The primary census report of 2011 gives the number of ethnic population groups of Bangladesh as 27. The first is Chakma, consisting of 444,748 people while the Marma, the second largest ethnic group compares with 202,974 persons. In 2007, around 150,000 Marma were lived in Bangladesh.

In India: As per the 2011 Census of India, Marma had a total population of 4,640 of which 2,411 (52%) were males and 2,221 (48%) were females. Population below 6 years was 699. The total number of literates in Marma was 2,669 (67.72% of the population over 6 years). In 2001 Indian census, 30,600 Marma were lived in the Mizoram and Tripura areas of India.

The Magh / Marma population as a whole declined over the years, particularly in the districts of Bandarban, Chittagong and Patuakhali.

It is recorded that in 1872, there were 4,049 Marmas in the Patuakhali region and later the number increased to 16,394 in 1951, but reduced to 3,713 in 1979. In 1991 census recorded the number of Marma population in Bangladesh at about 157,301. More than eighty per cent of them lived in Bandaarban, Rangamati, Khagrachari and Rest of live in Patuakhali, Moheshkhali, Teknaf, Ramu, Cox's Bazar and Chittagong (Rangunia, Fatikchari).

16. Marma Groups/Sub-Community:

The Marmas are divided into several groups. It is believed that the groups were named after the place where the ancestors of these groups first came and settled. Below is a brief introduction and list of the groups of Marmas currently found in the CHT:

Rgre-sa/Rege-sa/Khyong-sa, Plaing-sa, Kokdain-sa, Longdung-sa, Frang-sa/Frangra-sa, Oyoi-sa, Chiring-sa, Marok-sa/Marong-sa, Sbok-sa, Lemro-sa, Kyakfya-sa, Kronkyong-sa, and Sakpregya-sa.

Rgre-sa/Rege-sa/Khyong-sa: Lives on the banks of "Rugre / Rage Kya" or Sangundi. Rugre or Rikrai Khang means river of clear water. They are known as Rugresa or Khangsa as they live on the coast of Rugre Khang. However, there are some settlements of Khangs in Benchhari, Kalabania and Kwaikhyang and Narachari of Kaptai upazila of Rangamati hill district.

Plaing-sa; It is said that before migrating to the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the "Plengsa" predecessors lived on the banks of a mountain river called Peleng Khyang / Pelo Khyong in northern Arakan. Plainsa lives in the entire Khagrachhari district.

Kokdain-sa; the ancestors of this group of Marmas, who have passed down the lineage, first came from Arakan and settled in the "Kakdain Tong" or Kakdain hills. That is why the name of this group became Kokdainsa. Another explanation is given behind this naming. It is said that their predecessors were tax (Fainda) collector (Koksa). It is thought to have originated from Fainda Koksa. The Kakdain-as are scattered in Raikhali Union of Kaptai Upazila and Slebukkya or Betbunia Union of Kaukhali Upazila.

Longdung-sa; what the "Landuksa" say is that they had to push the boat while fleeing Arakan. The Marma word Long Thosa (Long = boat in Bengali, Thosa = that which pushes away) has been distorted and become Longduk-sa. They mainly live in Kaukhali upazila of Rangamati district. However, they have several settlements in Balukhali, Burighat, Jibatali and Bilaichhari upazilas of the same district.

Frang-sa/Frangra-sa; the group came to be known as "Frang-sa" or "Franrasa" from the Marma word "prang re" ((Brave in Bengali). The "Frangsas" themselves claim that the "Frangsas" are naturally humble. They have large settlements in Kaukhali upazila of Rangamati district "Chingangambra" (Betbunia) and Dong Krong (Dongnala) in Kaptai upazila.

Oyoi-sa; wherever they live, they first plant fruits, vegetables, etc. around the house and build a garden. The garden is called "U-yoin" in Marma. The origin of the name "Oyoi-sa" is from this "U-Yoin". They are settled in Bandeya (Bangalhalia) area of Rajsthali upazila under Rangamati district.

Chiring-sa; At present they live in Shilak, Chiring Barkhola of Sarafbhata Union and Pekua in Padua Union of Rangunia Upazila under Chittagong District.

Marok-sa/Marong-sa; at present they live in Rajvila, Udalbania (Thaingkhyang) of Rajvila Union in Sadar upazila of Bandarban district and Khik Phya in Rangamati Sadar.

Sbok-sa, they live on the banks of the river Sabok. The upper reaches of the Burmese border of the Sangu River (Rugre Khyang) of Bandarban district are known as "Subok Khyang".

Lemro-sa; the group became known as the "Lemrosa" after migrating from the "Lemro" region of Arakan. Their habitat is mainly concentrated in Lama and Naikhyangchhari upazilas of Bandarban district.

Kyakfya-sa; the group is known as the "Kyakfyassa" because it comes from the "Kyak Fru" region of Arakan. They have settlements at Chingmrong, Wagang (Wagga) and Kamlong in Kaptai upazila.

Kronkyong-sa; their ancestors lived along the hill rhyme "Krong Khyang". They are known to live in the Krong Khyang area.

Sakpregya-sa; they live about 10 miles east of Harbang in Chuk Kra or Chakoria upazila of Chittagong district.

17. Marma Language:

Marmas have their own dialect, which has close resemblance with Burmese and Arakanese. Their written characters is Burmese. Marma language belongs to the Burma-Arakan group within the broad classifications of Tibet-Burma languages. In recent times, Marmas in urban areas and nearby settlements speak the corrupt local language of Chittagonian language. Counting numerals, name of the days, months and years of Marmas are similar to those of the Burmese and Arakanese. They do not have in general any rich literature of their own.

18. Linguistic Relation among Burmese, Rakhain and Marma:

The linguistic relationship of Burmese, Rakhine and Marma is an inportant for research. Burmese is a Tibeto-Burman (TB), Lolo-Burmese, South Burmish language. Rakhine as part of the Burmish language family. Marma also belongs to the Southern Burmish language family; Rakhine and Marma as dialects of Burmese. All three are spoken primarily in Myanmar and Bangladesh; Burmese is the most well-known language of the Southern Burmish. While much has been documented and written about Burmese, there is not much information available about Rakhine and Marma. The Marma languages of Bangladesh, and some initial observations about the historical relationship between Burmese, Rakhine and Marma are as bellow:

Figure 1. The Burmish language family

i) Burmese: Burmese is the national language of Myanmar (formerly Burma) the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia; Yangon (formerly Rangoon) is the capital and largest city. There are around 30 million first language (L1) speakers of Burmese, and around 10 million second language (L2) speakers spread throughout the country (Lewis et al. 2014). Burmese is spoken throughout most of Myanmar, and is widely used in central Myanmar.

“Myanmar” is also the official language name of Burmese. Burmese people use “Bama” as an ethnonym for ethnic Burmans and “Myanmar” as an ethnonym to refer to all groups that comprise a part of the country of Myanmar. The spoken form of Burmese is called “Bama” and the written form is called “Myanma” (or Myanmar); in English, both forms of the language are called Burmese. The dialects of Burmese as Beik, Mandalay Burmese, Yangon Burmese and Yaw; Bomang is a version spoken in Bangladesh. The dialect of Yangon Burmese is considered standard (spoken) Burmese. The government uses the High or literary version of Burmese which is older and dissimilar to the spoken Low version; school textbooks are also written in High Burmese. Burmese is written using Myanmar (Burmese) script.

ii) Rakhine: The Rakhine people live mainly in western Myanmar and in southeastern Bangladesh. In Myanmar, they live in Rakhine State and in Chin State. In Rakhine State, Rakhine people live as far south as Gwa, in Thandwe, on the islands of Ramree and Man Aung and extending north up through Sittwe and Mrauk-U to the southeastern border of Bangladesh. In Chin State, they live in Paletwa Township. Rakhine also live in southeastern Bangladesh. In the 18th century, many Rakhine migrated from their homes in Rakhine (Arakan) State, Burma, due to political turmoil; they settled in southeastern Bangladesh and southern Tripura in India. The majority of Rakhine in Bangladesh live in Cox’s Bazar, Patuakhali and Barguna districts. Rakhine is considered a regional dialect of Burmese by many researchers; while others claim it is sufficiently different from standard Burmese to be a separate language. Rakhine pronunciation corresponds more to Written Burmese (WB) than does modern spoken Burmese (SB). Rakhine is one of the officially-recognized large minority groups in Myanmar; it has the second-largest number of speakers there and is used by bout 4.4% of Myanmer’s total population.

In the past, Rakhine were known as Arakanese but since 1989 those in Myanmar are referred to as “Rakhine”. This group has also been called Rakhain, Rakhaing and Rakkhaine in the scholarly literature. In Bangladesh, “Arakanese” who live in the coastal areas are called Rakhine. From the 17th to early in the 20th century, Rakhine speakers in Bangladesh were called Mogh, but this term is no longer used.

Rakhine is used in all but formal domains in Rakhine State; school books are in written Burmese, but children are taught by Rakhine teachers using Rakhine pronunciation. Most Rakhine there speak Burmese as L2; the Rohingya language5 is used as L2 in Buthidaung and Maungdaw townships. In Bangladesh, many Rakhine men use Bengali as L2; other L2s for Rakhine in Bangladesh are Burmese and Chittagonian. In Myanmar, Rakhine is written using Myanmar (Burmese) script, however the script is not standardized and is used informally. A small number of Rakhine speakers in Bangladesh are literate in Burmese script; most Rakhine in Bangladesh are literate only in Bengali. Rakhine children from several communities are becoming literate in Burmese script through their use of Rakhine kindergarten primers.

iii) Marma: Bradley says that the “Mrama are a remnant of the Arakanese court who fled over 200 years ago when the Burmans seized Arakan.” In Bangladesh, “Arakanese” who live in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) are called Marma. In much of the literature Marma is considered a dialect of Burmese virtually identical to Rakhine. In the past, “Mogh” was used for Marma speakers as well as for Rakhine, but it is no longer used, as it is a pejorative term. Kilgo and Moore write about the term Mogh:

In the literature and through the years the Arakanese in Bangladesh have been given many different names including Mogh, Magh, Mugh, etc. For the Bengalis the word Magh (and its various forms) historically signifies a race of pirates who left a bitter memory of plunder and persecution. It is reported that for this reason in the Census sheets of 1951 the “Moghs” requested that they be referred to as Marma...

The Marma are one of the largest and earliest language groups to settle in the CHT. Marma is used as LWC in the Cox’s Bazar and Bandarban districts by several other language groups. In Bangladesh, Marma speak Bengali and Chittagonian as L2; in Rangamati and Khagrachari districts, the Chakma language is an L2 of some Marma. As with Rakhine speakers in Bangladesh, most Marma speakers are only literate in Bengali; literacy in Burmese script among the Marma is also increasing through the use of Marma kindergarten primers.

Marma is a member of the Lolo-Burmese branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family. It is spoken by about 180,600 people in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh, particularly in Rangamati, Bandarban and Khagrachari districts. It is considered one of the dialects of Arakanese, along with Ramree and Sandowa.

Tibeto-Burman languages:

Achang, Arakanese, Balti, Bantawa, Bisu, Drung, Dzongkha, Garo, Hajong, Hani, Hmar, Jingpho, Karen, Kayah Li, Ladakhi, Lahu, Lepcha, Limbu, Lipo, Lisu, Manipuri, Marma, Mro, Naxi, Nepal Bhasa / Newari, Sikkimese, Sunuwar, Tangkhul Naga, Tibetan, Tshangla, Tujia, Yi

Languages written with the Burmese script:

Arakanese, Burmese, Jingpho, Karen, Marma, Palaung.

iv)Marma alphabet:

Sample text in Marma

19. Marma Education:

The Buddhist monk is called “Phongyee”, Temple is “Kyong” and the village is called “Roa” in Marma language. The Phongyee play an important role for the maintenance of traditional education system in the Marma society. The Phongyee give them both spiritual and formal education in the temple. From the child-hood Marma childred receive both religious and linguistic education from their religious teacher in the temple. As a result, compared to other religious groups, the literacy rate among Marmas is very high due to the existence of Phongyee and Buddhist temple in every villages and localities. Every member of the Marma society can read and speak the Burmese fluently. Yet the system is inadequate, for which many boys and girls are found studying in normal schools and colleges in and outside their locality.

20. Culture of Marma:

The Marmas are subdivided into 12 clans, named after the place from where they migrated. These clans include the Ragraisa, consisting of Marmas living south of the Karnaphuli River, the Palaingsa from Ramgarh Upazila, the Khyongsa from riverside communities, the Toungsa from the hill ridges, and smaller clans including the Longdusa, the Frangsa, the Kyokara-sa, and the Talongsa.

The culture of the Marmas is similar to that of the Rakhine people, including their language, food, clothes, religion, dance, and funeral rites. Marma men wear a sarong called lungyi, while Marma women wear a sarong called thabein.

Marmas mostly depend on agriculture, traditionally practicing slash-and-burn cultivation on the hills. Their belief in Theravada Buddhism is as deep as the Rakhine society's, with an emphasis on ritual practices in deities. Some Marmas also practice animism and Islam.

Marmas follow the Burmese calendar. They celebrate the New Year, called Sangrain, which begins on the first day of Bohag. They make sangraimu, which is a form of traditional cakes. They take part in Sangrain Relong Pwe (Water Festival/water pouring), where young Marma men and women spray each other with water. Sangrai is celebrated in three days, on the 1st day, called Painchwai or Akro, homes are decorated with flowers. On the 2nd day, Sangrai Akya, Marmas participate in traditional sports, dances, cultural activities and hold meetings regarding community issues. They also go to monasteries to participate in the Buddha statue's bathing (cleansing) ritual on this day. On the 3rd day, called Sangrai Atada, they cook a vegetable dish made out of more than 100 ingredients, called hangbong (pachan in Bangla).

Historically it is believed that the Arakanese emperor has invaded the south-eastern region of the current Bangladesh. Since then the region was ruled under the Burmese emperor and Marma ethnic groups were established from that period. Their cultural traits are connected to their ancestral heritage, including dress (which is called thumbui—the lower part, and angi—the upper part), food (mostly spicy, sour, and hot), writing (Burmese script), traditional songs and musical instruments (for example, kappya, jjea, and kharra). They speak Marma, and the majority are Theravada Buddhist. They have many festivals during the year, but Sangrai is regarded as the biggest celebration among them. It is a tradition to welcome the New Year according to the Buddhist lunar calendar. This festival held for three days, and the popular ritual during the second and third day of the festival is to splash water on each other. They believe that the water takes away all the sorrow and pure up our soul and body, so one must to greet others (even strangers) by splashing water on them. But the culture of marma is unique. It has also their own language, tradition, culture etc.

21. Traditional Dress:

Marma men usually wear “Lungi” or “Sarong” which is long skirts and shirts. Lungis made of coarse cloth and a shirt without collar but having several pockets. At the time of festivals, senior member of the society use close fitting coat called “Prakha Angyi” over the shirt buttoned at the thro on the head they use a white kerchief known as “Goung Poung”. Some Marmas prefer “Matoray” (tattooing) for the beauty of the body. Educated sections use trousers, shirts and shoes. The common traditional dress constitute for the Marma women as “Thami” for the lower part of the body till bottom of the ankle and the “Ngyi” (blouse) wear for upper parts. To make them attractive and charming, the female keep tuft called “Chaing Thung” on the head. Sometimes, they decorate their heads with flowers and jewels. “Saloar and Kamiz” are also popular dress of young Marma girls.

Marma men and women typically wear ‘thami’ (sarong) and ‘angi’ (blouse). However, the angi used by the men is more a waistcoat than a blouse. Marmas make their own dresses using traditional weaving technology, although many now purchase common Bangali dresses from the market.

They usually do not wear shoes, but this tradition, too is not in vogue now thanks to increased association with other peoples. Kitchen utensils in a Marma family are mostly earthen or made of bamboo and wood. Many families, however, use aluminum wares like pots, pans, plates and glasses.

In the evolution of time, there has been a radical change in the dress of the Marmas. In today's Marma society, almost everyone uses "lungi". Adolescent boys are seen wearing "lungi" as well as pants-shirts. Girls of all ages except older women like to wear colorful patterned dresses. The use of "Rangai" (bras) by Marma women has gone up. Instead, colorful "thubuins" designed on the lower part and advanced tops, blouses and modern bassiers on the upper part are seen to be used.

22. Religion of Marma:

Religion is one of the defining characteristics of Marma ethnicity in the CHT. Together with language and other cultural characteristics, religion constitutes and important feature of the Marma ethnic identity. Marma ethnicity has always been closely associated with Theravada Buddhist institutionalism, a type of Buddhist institutional tradition that is practiced in Sri Langka, Burma, and Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia.

Like the Buddhists of South and South-east Asia, Marmas are Theravada Buddhists. Written in Pali, the Tripitaka is the sacred book of Marmas. In religious matters they have been divided in two groups: the Monastic Community and the Laity. The Buddhist monks maintain celibacy, wear yellow robes called “Civara” and live in the temple, while the Laity leads a family life with wife, children and relatives.

Marmas believe that their birth, death, reincarnation and all activities in life take place under the influence of a supernatural power, which they try to satisfy through their rites and rituals. Animism is also in practice among them, like other tribes and sub-tribes, believe in superstitions, magic and supernatural powers, which they try to satisfy through their rites and rituals. They are Buddhists in faith. Animism is also in practice among them. They perform all the important Buddhist religious festivals and also various rituals and worships to satisfy different gods. Dreams have a very strong influence in decision making in their everyday life.

The marma religious ceremony was Buddha Purnia/Modhu Purnima (Pyachowai Puye), Ashari Purnima (Wachhu-puye), Ashini Purnima (Wagyai-puye), Kathin Chibor Dan (Kthing-puye) and Celebrate Marma New Year and Water Festival (Sangrai-puye), Boishakhi Purnima (Nyongri Long- Puye), Modhu Purnima (Pyare Long-puye), and Probojya (Sahng pru-puye)

23. Marma Marriage and Ritual:

Marriage is a very important part of the social life of Marmas. Cross cousin marriages and monogamy are predominant features of this society. Polygamy is also allowed. Child marriage is practically forbidden. Pre-marriage love is common. Both men and women have equal rights to divorce although the final settlement is to be made in the court of karbari (village leader) or of the headman (mouza or area leader). Living conjugal life without marriage is a social crime in this society. There are five types of marriage in this society –

1. Settled Marriage

2. Irregular Marriage

3. Forbidden

4. Widow or Widowes Marriage

5. Polygamy.

The dowery system is situated in marma's.

They are Patriarchal. Though brother and sister have blood relationship between them but their hereditary identity is quite different. Brothers carry the identity of paternal line while sister carry the maternal. This society strictly maintains several customs and restrictions to keep up their century old traditions, norms and administration. The Marmas are an amusement loving race. They are socialized in three occasion-Birth, Death and Marriage. After 7 days of the birth of a baby they invited their relatives to a feast to name the new born baby; this ritual is called 'Modetong Poye’.

24. Property Distribution of Marma:

The nuclear family is predominant in the Marma community. Although the husband is the head of the household, the wife also has a significant role in the family. Kinship ties are quite strong in the Marma society. Such ties are both affinity and consanguineous. The property inheritance, in general, follows the old Burmese line of inheritance called “Thamohada”. Both sons and daughters inherit parental properties. The “Auroth” (most favourite) child gets the ownership of the house and has to take care of the parents. In recent times, however, inheritance of landed property follows a rule according to which the property is distributed in the ratio of 2:1 between sons and daughters.

Though the father is the formal head of the family, both male and female members have equal rights. Sons and daughters inherit parental property in equal proportion.

25. Food Habits of Marma:

Rice and boiled vegetables are major food items of the Marma people. ‘Nappi’ a paste of dried fish, is a favourite. They enjoy rice bear and smoke indigenous cigars. The marmas take fish, meat and variety of vegetables with rice. They prepare a delicious soup of chiken and Dillenia indica. Boiled vegetables mixed with chillies called Tohza are a favorable menu to them. They use nappi/awangpi made from dried fish to cook curries. They also supplement their food requirement by gathering tree leaves, roots, and tubers from the forests.

They also eat vegetables, fish and meat as an adjunct to rice. Vegetables include farm-grown vegetables as well as a variety of herbs and fruits that grow naturally in the forest. The young tips of bamboo and a few species of wool are very favorite food of the Marmas. They often use different types of “Shutki” (dry fish), “Nappi” (a paste of dried fish,) in their curry. In addition to fish in aquatic animals, crabs, oysters, snails, cuckoos and amphibians, golden frogs and turtles are their delicacies. Meat includes domesticated chickens, cows, goats, buffaloes, pigs, ducks and pigeons. Marmaras also eat wild boar, deer, guisap, hedgehog, pigeons etc.

26. Economic condition of Marma:

Agriculture is the main occupation of Marmas. Jhum cultivation is their primary agricultural pursuit. Small-scale homestead gardening is also common among them. Other important economic activities of Marmas include basketry, brewing and wage labor. Weaving is a very common activity of Marma women. Marmas were not market oriented in the past. Their economic activities and production system were geared to their subsistence. Recently they have become involved in trade and commerce. Produces of the Marma people are sold mostly through middlemen. Some Marma families now operate small retail stores. The Marma practice shifting cultivation, and many cut wood and bamboo which are sold to the Bengalis. The Marma tend to be rather isolated from the majority population, though this has been changing as more and more Bengalis move into the hill tract areas.Some of educated marmas are do job as well as business.

27. House ‍Structure of Marma:

The Marma people believe that east-facing houses are the best. For this reason, in some areas inhabited by the Marmas, the construction of road-facing houses is seen in the middle of the village, but in most of the areas, the houses of the Marmas are facing east. It is customary in Marma society to perform certain rituals before constructing a house.

The houses of Marma people are made of bamboo, wild grass and straw. These are built on elevated bamboo or wooden platforms (machang). Every room of the house is a bed room-cum-store. The space underneath the machang is used for various purposes such as keeping livestock, storing fuel wood, or accommodating handlooms for weaving. Some houses, however, are made of mud and built without machangs.

28. Social Administration of Marma:

The traditional political administrative system in the Marma community is a three-tier one. Village level administration is headed by a Karbari. The Mouza level is headed by a Headman and the Circle level is headed by the Circle chief called “Raja”. The main responsibilities of the village Karbari, the Headman and the Raja are collection of jhum tax. In addition, each is entrusted with various socio-cultural responsibilities including mitigation of disputes, pronouncing judgement, and maintaining law and order at their respective levels of administration.

29. Death Ritual of Marma:

Marmas burn the bodies after the death and bury the remains. If the Buddhist monks or rich men died, their bodies burn with fanfare and organise big ceremony. The funeral ceremony for the dead person is held after seven days from death. A dance party called 'Saing' carries the coffin (Talah) to the crematorium at the death of a men in this society. They arrange a feast called 'Lakaprecgchuai' after 7 days of death. After death, Marma elderlies are cremated, while younger deceased Marmas are buried.

30. Treatment of Marma:

i) Marma Therapy: Marma therapy is an important part of Ayurveda that helps to maintain health by cleansing blocked energy. The word Marma is of Sanskrit origin ‘Mrin Maranae’. The Sanskrit phrase, “mriyatae asmin iti marma” means ‘there is likelihood of death or serious damage to health when these points are inflicted. Hence, these areas are called marma. Marma in Sanskrit also means hidden or secret. By definition, a Marma point is a juncture on the body where two or more types of tissue meet, such as muscles, veins, ligaments, bones or joints.

In Marma therapy, a very light stimulation of points on the body is done. It removes blockages from the marma points giving physical and psychological relaxation and strength. This is a powerful process and a therapy that works with these subtle and sensitive energy points to open the energy channels in the body are called srothas.

Marma points, when gently pressed on the skin can stimulate a chain of positive events.

Marma therapies are profound and work at many levels - physical, emotional, mental and spiritual and can create dramatic shifts in the body.

• Relief from chronic or acute pain, both locally and distally

• Detoxification at all levels.

• Significant improvement in bodily/organ functions, especially immunity, digestive, respiratory, neural & psychological

• Healthier skin and a radiant appearance

• Balances body temperature and can balance the doshas

• Releases neuro-chemicals such as serotonin, melatonin for improved cognitive function and deeper sleep

ii) Marma Points in Ayurveda for Healing: Marma therapy utilizes 107 points or “doorways” into the body and consciousness. The mind is considered as the 108th marma. Major Marma points correspond to the seven chakras, or energy centers of the body, while minor points radiate out along the torso and limbs. These points range in size from one to six inches in diameter. The points were mapped out in detail centuries ago in the ‘Sushruta Samhita ’, a classic Ayurvedic text.

The points cover both the front and back of the body, including

• 22 on the lower extremities

• 22 on the arms

• 12 on the chest and stomach

• 14 on the back, &

• 37 on the head and neck

iii) Marma Points of Ayurveda:

In ancient Vedic times, marma points were called bindu – a dot, secret dot or mystic point. Like a door or pathway, activating a marma point opens into the inner pharmacy of the body. The body is a silent, universal, biochemical laboratory—operating every moment to interpret and transform arising events. Touching a marma point changes the body’s biochemistry and can unfold radical, alchemical change in one’s makeup. Stimulation of these inner pharmacy pathways signals the body to produce exactly what it needs, including hormones and neurochemicals that heal the body, mind and consciousness. This deep dimension of marma therapy has the potential to unfold spiritual healing.

31. Conclusion:

Ethnically, Marmas are Mongoloid race and culturally, they are very close to the Rakhines in the state Arakan of Myanmar. The Marmas migrated from present-day Rakhine State to the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) between the 16th and 18th centuries, coinciding with the Kingdom of Mrauk U's conquest of Chittagong. Records of the East India Company and others indicate that the Marmas migrated from the Kingdom of Mrauk U to Chittagong of Bangladesh in two phases of migrations during 14th to 17th centuries in the golden period of Mrauk U. In the first phase, during the Mrauk U Kingdom expanded to some parts of Chittagong Division. Secondly, Marma ancestors fled to Chittagong and settled down as the Arakanese kingdom was conquered and annexed by Burmese king Bodawpaya in 1785.

In the early days of the 15th century, the Arakanese kingdom, where Mrauk U was the capital, expanded its territories to the Chittagong area of Bengal. After the victory of Arakan over Burma's Pegu kingdom in 1599 AD, the Arakanese king Min Razagyi appointed a Prince of Pegu, Maung Saw Pru, as the governor of newly established Bohmong Htaung (Circle) by giving the title of "Bohmong" Raja. That area was mostly populated by the Arakanese descendants and ruled by the Burmese (Myanmar) noble descendants who started to call themselves Marma in the Arakanese language. "Marma" is an archaic Arakanese pronunciation for Myanmar.

Bandarban Hill District was once called Bohmong Htaung since the Arakanese rule. Once Bohmong Htaung was ruled by Bohmong Rajas who were the subordinates to the Arakanese kings. Ancestors of the present Bohmong dynasty were the successors of the Pegu King of Burma under Arakan's rule in Chittagong. In 1614, King Khamaung, the king of Arakan, appointed Maung Saw Pru as Governor of Chittagong who in 1620 repulsed the Portuguese invasion with great valour. As a consequence, the Arakanese king Khamaung awarded Maung Saw Pru the title of Bohmong meaning "Great General". After the death of Maung Saw Pru two successors retained the Bohmong title. During the time of Bohmong Hari Gneo in 1710, the Arakanese King Sanda Wizaya (Candavijaya) recaptured Chittagong from the Mughals. Bohmong Hari Gneo helped King Sanda Vijaya in recapturing Chittagong and as a mark of gratitude the latter conferred on Bohmong Hari Gneo the grand title of Bohmong Gree which means "great Commander-in-Chief".

During the British reign in 1790 "The Raide of Frontier Tribes Act −22" was passed which among other things envisaged the creation of Chittagong Hill Tracts District comprising the entire hilly region along the south eastern border of present-day Bangladesh, stretching right from Tripura in the north and Myanmar in the south. The act also provided for the appointment of a superintendent to discharge the administrative functions under the direct control and supervision of Divisional Commissioner of Chittagong. However, seven years later in 1797, the post of superintendent was re-designated as that of Deputy Commissioner.

In 1900 the "Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulations 1900" was enacted to provide a consolidated and broader legal framework for the administrative system. This Act with minor modifications constituted the fundamentals for the administration of three hill districts. Recognizing the special historical and geographical features of the place as well as uniqueness of tribal population, the Regulation of 1900 divided the entire district into three circles. Each circle was to be headed by a circle chief whose primary responsibility was to collect revenue, assisted by a Headman (Head of a Mouza) and a Karbari (Head of a Village) respectively at Mouza and village level. The Bohmong king was appointed as the Circle Chief of the Bohmong Circle.

The Marmas is originally came from Arakan from sixteenth century through the eighteenth century. Burmese history further reveals that there were two waves of migration and relocation of the Arakanese-Marma about the same time one which settled in the Mong circle in the North (e.g. Khagrachri District) and other which moved to the Bohmang circle in the south (e.g. Bandarban district).

References:

1. Bangladesher Etihas (History of Bengladesh) by Four Doctors namely Dr. Mohammad Abdur Rahim, Dr. Abdul Momin Chowdhury, Dr. A.B.M Mahmud and Dr. Sirajul Islam.

2. Marma: Itihas o Songskhrity (Marma History and Culture) by Mongsanu Chowdhury and

U Kyaw Zan.

http://www.ebbd.info/marma.html

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https://www.bangladesh.com/blog/the-marma-tribe-of-bangladesh/

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marma

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maung_Saw_Pru